Updated Info

Some previous info I had posted, mentioning the web link to the site of my sociology class has
been changed due to case sensitivity and more recent updated info on the site. It can now
be checked out at: http://www.liberatingboys.com

My Paper on 'Gangsta Rap'

Introduction

The idea of a masculine crisis, according to Faludi (1999) has been precipitated by the fact that men have been enmeshed in an ‘ornamental culture’ of display so that they have been forced to become like women. American men are in a crisis, primarily because they are considered ‘feminized’ consumers rather than ‘manly’ producers. However, Robinson (2000) suggests that this idea of ornamentalization of man may not be such a bad thing and considers if a crisis in masculinity really is a bad thing and for whom would it be bad for. In fact it could offer a good outcome if it leads us to think about the nature of masculinity and femininity.

The onset of the ‘boy crisis’ in education, first started in 2005, when first lady Laura Bush, a former school librarian and wife to George W. Bush, had publicly announced her concerns over the problems with boys. The concerns of Laura Bush were summarized in an article written by Michelle Norris which states that Laura Bush was concerned about the lack of attention that boys were receiving and felt that they have been neglected. (Morris, 2006). The media were quick to pick up on this moral panic called ‘boy crisis’ in numerous newspapers and by many professionals, suggesting that that school environments are in favor of girls. Many professionals addressing the concern of boys underperformances compared to girls in schools, have used different reasoning from biological brain differences between boys and girls (Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Tyre, 2006; Rivers & Barnett, 2006), gender treatment differences in schools between boys and girls that suggest boys are unsettled and unfocused in the classroom (Sacks, 2005; Thompson, 2006; Lewin, 2006ª; Young, 2006; Lewin, 2006; Chiarella, 2006), and that there is a anti-male bias in education materials that has been said to be of more benefit to girls learning (and reading) than with boys. (Sommers, 2000; Klienfeld, 1998; Chiarella, 2006; Brooks, 2006).

Many of these theories make use of psychological and biological reasoning, while others look to performance measures on testing to show that test scores and performance overall does not support a ‘boy crisis’, especially when we look at different race and class groupings (Mead, 2006). Sara Mead, senior analyist at the Education Sector and author of a report for the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, aka: The – federally funded since 1971- Nations Report Card) which is an independent educational think tank, has looked at data complied by the NAEP that has found that, over the past three decades, boys test scores are mostly up and boys are getting bachelor degrees. Although low income boys, like low income girls are lagging behind middle class students, boys are scoring significant gains in elementary and middle school and are much better prepared for college, the report says. It concludes much of the pessimism about young males seems to derive from inadequate research, sloppy analysis and discomfort with the fact that although the average boy is doing better, the average girl has gotten ahead of him. “The real story is not bad news about boys doing worse,” the report says, “it’s good news about girls doing better.” (Mead, 2006).

In other studies, race and class have shown to also confound the supports for a ‘boy crisis’, based on US department of Education(2002) statistical evidence of US public schools versus US Department of Defense (DoD) schools in relation to White, Black and Hispanic boys and girls. On writing achievements there were gender differences across all races, showing females fair better and with DoD students doing better than public school students. In other statistics, like in Boston public high school graduation and college enrollment rates based on gender differences examined by Khatiwada & Sum (2002), shows the numbers of female graduates per 100 males graduates, and as follows, shows that there were 79 White females per 100 White males, 124 Black females /100 Black males, 122 Hispanic females /100 Hispanic males and 115 Asian females /100 Asian males. However, 8th grade math achievement for 2002 gender differences are small to nonexistent and the racial patterns of whites are doing better than Hispanics, who are doing better than blacks, is the same for public and DoD schools for both sexes and in both, math and writing. The NAEP offers hope for the situation of black boys in reading and suggests that,

“And while academic performance for minority boys is often shockingly low, it’s not getting worse. The average fourth-grade NAEP reading scores of black boys improved more from 1995 to 2005 than those of white and Hispanic boys or girls of any race.” (Mead 2006).

There is most recent 2004 NAEP on reading achievement for grades 4, 8 and 12, shows that boys and girls scores are nearly identical but the reading scores are different, with girls having higher scores than boys that diverges with advancing grade. (Mead, 2006). All this evidence alludes to the fact that boys are doing better in math and girls better in reading and that with each consecutive grade both boys and girls advance and the NAEP states,
“The most recent main NAEP assessment in reading, administered in 2005, does not support the notion that boys’ academic achievement is falling.
In fact, fourth-grade boys did better than they had done in both the previous NAEP reading assessment, administered in 2003, and the earliest comparable
assessment, administered in 1992. Scores for both fourth- and eighth-grade boys have gone up and down over the past decade, but results suggest that the reading skills of fourth- and eighth-grade boys have improved since 1992.” (Mead, 2006).

When we look at scores and assessments on boys and girls divided by race and class we can see that it is too simple to say that it is a problem of boys or a problem of girls. DoD scores show otherwise that it is a problem of boys or boys inabilities to learn compared to girls. This points then to pedagogy, school structures and settings, rather than gender and biological brain differences as the problem, and this then only helps to promote those who are advocating boy exclusive classrooms and also lends more support towards the claims of anti –male bias in educational reading materials. Jay Matthews from the Washington Post, as well as other opinions on the ‘boy crisis’ is that we need to be careful of assumptions drawn when we look at subgroup performance and he and others, hold an even handed look at the situation and does an excellent job of debunking ideas that have become conventional ‘wisdom.’ (Matthews, 2006; Young 2006; Sacks, 2005; Rivers & Barnett, 2006; Sheppard, 2006).

The ‘boy crisis’ also includes issues that are outside of the mainly dominated educational arena into other areas. Some scholars believe that issues around violence in other areas, like sports, music, and the violent visual aspects of televison and movies and video games, contribute to the ‘boy crisis’. In the video Raising Cain, Michael Thompson raises the point that the violence seen in video games and movies confuses boys in real life because they see these images but also get the real message that this is wrong and that it is then difficult for boys to discern between fantasy and actual violence. Thompson suggests that schools need to make the distinction between fantasy and actual violence and that all boys are faced with a ‘culture of cruelty’. From the video, one case of a teenager named Mike Evans who likes to play the drums and is considered to not be following the hegemonic ideals of masculinity because he is considered to be a goth and says himself that he knows he is strange and he accepts this perception of himself. He says he has also become a bully to feel better and gain popular acceptance. As it points out in the video, all boys need to master a skill to gain acceptance from their peers. (Thompson, 1992).
In relation to televison and video game violence, the cultivation hypothesis, formulated by George Gerbner suggests that video games and televison violence, “has long term effects which are small, gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant.” (Wikipedia 2006).

O’Brien and Szeman (2004) summarizes David Grossman’s work on violent video games and the desensitization to violence and killing in video games (Doom) are used by the military to train soldiers, which is characteristic to many point – and –shoot type games played by children who can become desensitized to real life attacks and violence (85-86). Micheal Kimmel suggests that various visual media exposes us, “to a culture that accepts and expects violence….and that the National Televison Violence Study…found that violence is ubiquitous (61 % of all shows contained TV violence [for the year 2000]), and that it is typically …by a white male, who goes unpunished and shows little remorse…[and is] justified…in a humorous way. (Kimmel 2000: 158). Narrator Jackson Katz touches on all areas of the hardship that faces men in our culture regarding violence and the media in the film, Tough Guise: violence, media and the crisis in masculinity, where there the tough guise is a front put on by men to show this tough image of masculinity for other men and that this type of behavior is found in all socioeconomic groups. It is a behavior with an emphasis on physical toughness and this shows a, “growing connection increasingly seen in problems of contemporary masculinity.” (Jually, 1993).

Also in the video, Richard Mays suggests that there are men of color poses called the ‘cool pose’, which is a front using their bodies in such a way to present gesturing and poses and this originates from an urban street culture turned mainstream to glamourize street style and the black pose and body. He suggests that middle class White boys today emulate poor Blacks who are emulating Italian mobsters from ganster films. The idea behind this is that men of color feel the need to assert their dominance that has been stripped of them from the dominant culture. (Jually, ; Way & Chu 2004: 220-21; Forman & Neal 2004: 127; Kimmel & Messner, 2001: 5-6). Some of the effects on society that we see are events like the Columbine school shootings and the arising of the moral panic across the States of other various school shootings between the years 1992 (Olivehurst, CA: May 1) up to the year 2001 (Oxnard, CA: Jan 10; Santee, CA: March 5; El Cajon: March 22). Other school shootings occur all over the country in the years between 1992-2001. (Kline, 2004). The Columbine shootings were staged by two middle class White boys who didn’t fit in with the mainstream sports physicality of the other boys who bullied them, at their school, and through the use of guns felt they could reassert their masculinity from the power that these guns provided for them.

One area of Black music that makes extensive use of images, sounds and lyrics about guns and violence is ‘Gansta’ rap (Ganster rap). Gangsta rap is one genre of many different forms of rap music. This paper discusses gangsta rap in particular because, more so than other genre’s of rap, its lyrics and sound makes use of direct violence in a first person narrative (Quinn 2005: 25; Rose 1994; Dimitriadis 2001: 69), which unlike other forms that only speak from a third person narrative (Rose 1994: and do not always include the sounds of guns and also talks directly about institutional forms of minority oppression and street life in a contextual manner. Also gangsta rap is heavily influenced by consumer culture and consumerism unlike other rap forms today and in the past, and the gangsta life includes more hegemonic displays of masculinity through the use of toughness and violence and materialism, whereas other rap forms were more of an underground political movement against racism, oppression and poverty, and so were not as prevalent on televison music programming that could reach a Black and White middle class audience. (Quinn, 2005; Perry, 2004; Rose 1994: 8-9).

Relevance To Feminism

The crisis of masculinity is a concern to feminists, as already pointed out, young men and boys are seen to be underachieving in school and are subjected to violence of the media, but also it seems that it is harder to say with any certainity what masculinity actually is. It also seems that the arising disadvantageous circumstances of men in terms of examples like, using ‘cool poses’, engaging in violence in different degrees and forms, feeling the need to perform the hegemonic masculine ideals, are said to be the backlash of the feminist movement. Christina Hoff- Sommers feels that misguided femininism is harming young boys in that feminist ideals in schools had negative effects on boys learning. Education content had a zero sum (set quanity of power) where their was (and still seen to be) an anti male bias of materials in favor of girls reading and boys experienced this zero sum effect. (Class Notes, Oct 6). Sommers also argues that natural masculine traits have been pathologized and she attacks pro feminist education which she feels has resulted in a reverse sexism in schools and that female styles of communication and a ‘talk show culture’ have contributed to a view of male communication reserves as dysfunctional (Sommers, 2000: 155-56).

The feminist perspective challenges the institutional power of men over women while believing in the social, political and economic equality of the sexes. The blame of the feminist movement and /or traditional forms of feminism for a masculinity crisis are based on view that feminists hold a perspective that only emphasized the suffering of women in the patriarcial system. However feminism today, much like pro-femininst men’s movement basically feel that the patriarcial system is paradoxical. In other words, men benefit from institutionalized power, but also suffer from gender role segregation and stereotyping. The reason of calling attention to the men’s dilemia, is in hopes of developing more equal gender relations. Robert Connell(2000) suggest that self identified feminism, “is a highly literate political movement…someone becoming a feminist will read a lot.” (Connell, 2000: 143). Connell also suggest that it requires a certain level of polticial literacy in order for men to be able to read (read into) feminist texts (or even feel that they are a feminist) without feeling like the ‘bad guys’. “The men who do grapple with the texual politics of feminism are likely to be from priviledged class backgrounds…whose political literacy is an aspect of his easy insertion into higher education.” (Connell, 2000: 144). In relation to masculinity, Connell feels that there is a problem in society of a non fully recognized nor accepted view of masculinity, and that there are in fact other forms that co-exist with a hegemonic masculinity, which are, marginized, subordinated and complicit. Connell also suggests throughout the chapter of the book that there are a few strategic issues, such as, male bodies and health issues, global influences of gender constructions, understanding the process in the change of masculinities, issues of the patriarchial dividend, as some examples of possible research agendas. Connell is making a start suggesting a pressing need to research what is really happening to men in different walks of life and if they perceive their masculinity to be in crisis.

The crisis with boys would perhaps be seen as largely an issue regarding gender according to Judith Lorber. To Lorber, gender is paradoxical in that it is a structuring tool used by bureaucrats and the institutions of society. Gender allocates resources in a socially organized, discriminatory way in both personal and institutional arenas. (Lorber, 2005). Lorber describes, the view she supports, ‘degendering’ as, “not gender neutrality…[and] is heading off those effects by not gendering in the first place…by treating people as a conglomeration of status positions, characteristics, attitudes, and behavior, we can undermine gendering.” (Lorber 2005: xiv). Both Michael Kimmel and Michael Messner hold the view, similar to Connell’s view of multiple masculinities, in which they state, “the single, seemingly universial masculinity obscured ways in which some men hold and maintain power over other men in our society, hiding the fact that all men do not share equally in the fruits of gender inequality.” (Kimmel & Messner, 2001: 1-2). Susan Wefald, the director of institutional planning of the Ms. Foundation, reasons why a woman’s organization has helped financially support the Education Equity Center’s quest for determining where a problem lies with boys in education, because, “The lives and futures of women and girls are interwoven with those of men and boys. Unless we engage men and boys in our work, we cannot end violence against women.” (Mead, 2006). The Ms. Foundation is a feminist organization who directs resources to many different projects in the attempts to help women which in effect, they believe is the goal to helping women’s families and men overall.

Discussion of my research

There are many forms of rap that appeared roughly a decade before rap music, which arose alongside Disk Jockies (DJ’s) and Emcees (MC’s) as a means to draw the spectator and crowds attention from the DJ’s being seen as a performance spectacle, onto the rapper (Rose, 1994; Chang 2005; Watkins, 2005). Violence and ‘gat popping’ (gun shooting), and the gangsta lifestyle are what the lyrics of gansta rap are about. One example of the most violent lyrics, by a 1980’s West coast hard rap is from the group, N.W.A. (Niggaz With Attitudes). Ice Cube, Dr. Dre, MC Ren, DJ Yella and the late Easy E, were the member’s of the, “first true gangsta rap group” from the West Coast rap scene, which truly set the tone for gangsta rap. (Bogdarnov et al, 2003: 564-565). One of their songs from the Straight Outta Compton, “---- Tha Police”, “inspired the FBI to write an angry letter to Priority Records.” (Bogdarnov et al 2003: 565). Unlike their social consciencious counterparts, like Public Enemy,…[they] have no ethical remove from their violence, gang bangin’ and drugs in L.A.’s inner city.” (Forman & Neal 2004: 65). A sample of their reality is as follows:

“ ---- the police, comin’ straight from the underground. A young N****r got it
bad ‘casue I’m brown/ And not the other color, so police think/ They have the
authority to kill a minority/…Searchin’ my car looking for the product, /Thinkin’
every n****r is sellin’ narcotic/ …But don’t let it be a black and a white one, /
‘Cause they’ll slam ya down to the street top, / Black police showin’ out for the
white cop.”

Forman & Neal (2004) says that, “N.W.A. celebrates a lethal mix of civil terriorism and personal cynicism. Their attitude is both an answer to, and the logical outcome of, the violence, racism, and oppression in American culture.” (65). N.W.A. however are expressing police brutality no doubt, but they have also taken part in gang violence, which can be seen as a response of the other forms of violence that they experience in the ghetto and this in a way presents a vicious nilhistic cycle of violence. (Bogdarnov et al 2003: 65).

Gansta rap became one of the most commodified of all other rap styles, through its use of product endorsement, beginning with the start of gansta rapper Ice Cube’s (O’Shea Jackson) career in the late 80’s, early 90’s, through the endorsement of high alcohol content (7.3%) St. Ides 40 ouncer malt liquor lanched by MacKenzie River Corporation.(Quinn, 2005). Ice Cube was the first successful endorser of St.Ides, which became iconic assessories of gansta rap, homologous with the focal concerns, activites, and collective self –image of the working class subculture from which the music sprang. (Quinn, 2005). The malt liquor lacked cultural capital and this was intentional. The idea was to go against bourgeois taste, in that the product and the commercials around it deployed, “ghettocentrism” which, “expresses the focus of the poor and working- class urban identity, culture, and values, which increasingly pervaded Black youth culture…in no small part as a result of gansta rap.” (Quinn, 2005).

This is important because later see that current gangsta rap is about ownership and materialism, which is homologous to elite White culture, as a part of the Black male identity. This suggests that, gangsta rap was seen to have culture capital and was influencing a larger audience, across socioeconomic barriers and across race. Much of the gangsta rap lyrics and posturing, seen in movies and heard in gangsta rap music exploits a pre- scripted and poverty enhanced blackness for material gain. There is a general theme throughout rap in general and is also in gangsta rap and that is the ghetto motto or call, ‘keepin’ it real”, which suggests that being down to earth is synonomous with being able to claim and navigate ghetto life despite one’s real origins (Ribeau, 2003; Chang, 2005; Perry 2004; Quinn, 2005; Watkins 2005: 103). Watkins (2005) points out that with the ‘keeping it real’ mantra, “eventually, the line between performing gangsta and living gangsta became blurred.” (103). The mantra of ‘keeping it real’ became, “synonomous with ‘aggressive’ and even ‘gangsta’. (Nichols, 2006). Along with this motto comes all the realism of ghetto life, which includes violence, drugs, sexism, abuse, and death, which the rapper portrays in the lyrics of his tracks. There is a reasoning that supports the idea that the ghetto is the first site and the true place of existing of the black male idenity. Rose (1994) suggests that rap related violence is discussed in certain ways in the popular media that, “is fundamentally linked to the larger social discourse on the spatial control of black people…social containment [an] understanding that black people are a threat to social order.” (Rose 1994:126).

Tricia Rose also explains that the ‘social construction of violence’ is, “when and how particular [events] are violent.”, and that, “rap related violence is one facet of [a] contemporary ‘urban crisis’ that consists of a ‘rampant drug culture’ and ‘wilding gangs’ of black and Hispanic youth. Labels presented by news reports are important, because they assign a particular meaning to an event and locate that event in a larger context.”, and, “[l]abels are critical to the process of interpretation, because they provide a context and frame for social behavior.” (Rose, 1994: 132). Rose further points out the work of Stuart Hall et al. in the Policing Of The Crisis that once labels are assigned, “the use of the label is likely to mobilize this whole referential context, with all its associated meaning and connotations” (132). It seems that the question is about how crime [in rap and crime that is connected to rap] is labeled. One example presented by Billboard News explains a case where the most recent gangsta rap film (50 Cent: Get Rich Or Die Tryin’), a biography of rapper 50 Cent life(Curtis James Jackson III), was pulled from a Homestead, PA theatre, “where a man [Shelton Flowers, 30] was fatally shot even though officials said they [did] not know whether the film was a factor in the slaying.” The Loews Corporation vice president, John MacCaully admitted that in the decision to stop showing the film, it was unsure if there was a direct connection between the shooting of Flowers by three gun men and the violence of the film. (Billboard News, Nov. 11: 2005).

The 50 Cent movie threatre shooting was framed in the context of a violent gangsta rap film even though it wasn’t clarified if the movie had even caused the shooting, and it makes one think of whose interests does this framing serve. It is left open for readers of this article to choose whether they think movies of gun toting black men are bad influences that cause violent reactions in young men. Others have showed concerns over the movies bulletin advertisements for the movie. Los Angeles county supervisor Michael Antonovich had asked Paramount’s chair man, Brad Grey, to remove a billboard of the 50 Cent movie, Get Rich Or Die Trying, which had shown, 50’s character standing with arms out on each side, holding a gun in one hand and a microphone in the other. His concerns were that the ad was outside a school in the north suburb of Altadena, and he felt that, “[The] billboard conveys to students a disturbing message actively promoting gun violence, criminal behavior and gang affliation.” (BBC News, 2005).

Many gangsta films like the 50 Cent movie and others (Boyz N The Hood; Menace II Society; New Jack City; Sugar Hill; Jason’s Lyric; Juice) exhibit black on black violence, and Rose (1994) suggests that gangsta rap, “is more heavier and includes explicit male black on black violence” caused by failed drug, business and alliance relations between black men. (141). Black rap gangter films make explicit use of the black male as being the one the victims of gun violence by other black men. (Kitwana, 2002: 123). The escalating violence that we see in the years after the ‘Boyz’ was an attempt to “outgun Boyz” and…films went overboard in portraying outlandish violence and in the process constructed a young Black thug genre, almost Black parodies of white gangster flicks.”(Kitwana, 2002: 127). Kitwana (2002) further points out that, “Black gangsta films…helped accurately depict a new Black youth culture, they have helped to reinforce the rap messages….” (139). The Billboard news article did not mention if the threatre shooting was black on black audience and so the reader is once again left to assume that it was, since black on black crime is prevalent in movies and rap music again and again.

After the concerns of Tipper Gore (wife of Al Gore) overheard some explicit Prince lyrics on masturbation, she went before congress to urge that warning labels be placed on records marketed to children. The Parents Music Resourse Center (PMRC) had also shown concerns over explicit lyrics and the rebellion of rap counternarratives as well. Both these events fueled the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) to introduce the black and white parental watch logo in 1990. (Quinn 2005: 87-88; Siegal, 2005). These warning labels were also extended to hard core rap albums with the label, “Parental Guidience – Explicit Lyrics” on them. (Quinn 2005: 88). The RIAA initated this system, but left it to the record companies to determine which labels should be labeled.

Nichols (2006) describes that 50 Cent makes use of Jackson Katz explaination of the cool pose, in his own shielding of his vunerability. 50 Cent brags about his tough and seemingly bulletproof exterior in one of his hit songs “In Da Club” , where he raps, “I got hit wit a few shells, and now I walk wit a limp…”, this is further charactized in his video that 50 was shot 9 times, in which he clearly prides himself on but also points out that limping is the price to pay to get rich and a limp is the evidence for his bravado. The rest of the song goes as follows,

“but hell ya in NY, Niggas’ll tell ya I’m loco, when tey playin’ like they got their rap game in a choke hold/ Im a fully focused man, my money on my mind, got a Mil at the Will and Im still on the grind/ Now shorty ya she’s feeling my stash and feeling my flow …/ You can find me in the club, bottle full ‘o bubbly, look mommie I got the X if your into takin’ drugs/ I’m into having sex , I ain’t into making love/ So come giv’ me a hug if your into getting’ rough…/ My flow, my show brought me the dough, that bought me all my fancy things, My crib, my cars, my clothes, my jewels , Look N****r I got more and I ain’t changed/ U should be lovin’ it way more than you hate it / N****r U mad? I thought you’d be happy I made it/ Im that cat by the bar, toastin’ to the good life/ U that fag**t ass N****r tryin’ to pull me back, riiiight? / Im up bumpin’ in the club, its on, now wit my eye’s on a B**** and now she’s gone/ If the roof on fire,
let tha MothaF’r burn/ If ya talkin’ ‘bout money, homey I ain’t concerned…”

This song clearly shows that the good life of having lots of money from being a
Rap star is the signifying role of a young Black male that says he has made it big and his
achieving this is important to the Black community, where others should be happy for
him and the fact that his fame and riches hasn’t changed who is, points out that he is real
and those who don’t like it have the problem. The song also includes misogynist attitudes
by the labels used for women, as bitches. Although this song is not as violent in the way
the N.W.A. song is, it still includes affliations with drugs, swearing, homophobia and
rampant sexism. However this is perhaps connected to a Black historical culture past, of
the southern Black Dolemite and Stackolee characters from the early 20 Century
folklore.(Quinn 2005: 95).

Nichols (2006), also suggests that, according to Katz, men receive pressure from society to conform to a narrow definition of manhood, exemplied by ‘dominance and control’ and further Katz says that these ideals and the behavior that accompany them are learned through being exposed to the media. Katz says that the ‘tough guise’ may affect men of color even more than white men because, “there is [very] little diversity of images of them” seen in the media.

One specific case of how the affects of the tough guise are felt more so, by young Black boys than White boys is explained by, Bakari Kitwana (2002), in which he points out that the Florida shooting of Barry Grunow, a 35 year old English teacher who was shot by Black thirteen year old, Nathaniel Brazill, “became the poster boy for the turn of the century spate of high school shootings rather than Dylan Klebold…and Eric Harris [of the Columbine shootings]…media coverage [had] humanized them”, and so, “Young Blacks who commit crimes, such as Brazill, rarely receive this kind of humanizing treatment in the mainstream press. This contributes ot the alienation of young Blacks from the mainstream culture.” (Kitwana, 2002: 19-20). Along with this treatment of Black youth compared to White youth, who commit violent acts there is certain pressures that Black boys face that White boys do not.

Howard C. Stevenson suggests that, “Black male youth are often pressured to present a static identity, not ambiguous or multidimentional, because the social interactions within a context often demand it….negative images can take control of one’s presented identity.” (Way & Chu, 2004: 60). Stevenson further explains that the function of the ‘cool pose’ in fact is a coping mechanism of, “exaggerated macho identity stances” that are, “essential in social and ecological environments where danger to personal and familial safety is high.”, and identities built through the use of these stances can leave many Black boys feeling, “missed, dissed and pissed” as well as, “hypervunerable” and, “all three of these dynamics are key aspects to the…hypervunerability that many Black boys experience.” (Way & Chu, 2004: 61). Stevenson suggests that it is, “Black youth who do not change the basic nature of insecure masculinity…and other boys and men are emulating…Black youth by buying rap music….amounts to… the blind leading the blind. They are led by the simple but life polarizing mission of insecure masculinity.” (Way & Chu 2004: 63).

In general, others feel that rap music as one of the factors responsible for the decline of Black student achievements. (Way & Chu, 2004: 317-18).

One white rapper who had a lot of influence and was aligned with other Black gangsta rappers was Emimem (Marshall Mathers) who had helped bring fame to 50 Cent. Emimem’s record label, Shady records had helped produce 50’s debut album, Get Rich Or Die Tryin’ in February 2003. 50 Cent’s ambition to be a rapper is revealed in his biographical movie of the same title of his album, where he states that listening to Tupac Shakur when he was growing up in the ghetto had cemented it as his foreseen destiny. Tupac Shakur was a gangsta rapper from the early 1990’s who was shot four times and killed in September 1996 from an unknown drive by shooting in Las Vegas and this shook the hip hop world that still managed to thrive. (Perry, 2004: 24; Foreman & Neal 2004: 601; Bogdarnov et al, 2003: 565). Tupac was the son of the Black Panther, Afeni Shakur, who was a member of the Panther 21, “a group arrested and indicted in New York for alleged bomb threats.”

The Panther 21 was a New York group that had split from the Oakland chapter and this had caused a war between the West and East coast Panthers and, “it had been alleged that the FBI fueled this war.” Afeni survived and gave birth to Shakur, and later Shakur, “claimed alliegance with California gangsta rappers and became intergral to the East /West Coast war that…claimed his life, and [as well as] the life of New York rapper Biggie Smalls aka The Notorous B.I.G….[also in a drive by shooting] outside a Los Angeles night club.” (Forman & Neal 2004: 286: 601). The death of rappers, or gangsta rappers we can see is not a direct cause of the violence in rap but however the media clouds these facts and suggests that it in fact is, but instead is due to intra poltical relations and hidden agendas related to politics, and racial and social oppressions. (Forman & Neal 2004: 559-562)

Eminem is another rapper who experienced oppression in the form of poverty if not race, in which Mathers turned to rap art forms which, “provided [him] a refuge.”, but, “years later the stain of Eminem’s impoverished life would establish a deep sense of anger and provide ample ammunition to launch an avalanche of lyrical bombs that would gain him widespread notoriety and scruntiny….(Watkins 2005: 91). Emimem expressed anger on society and his past childhood worked well with the theme’s he was seeing in hip hop, which helped him connect. (Watkins 2005: 92). Watkins further suggests that, “The idea that poor Whites and poor Blacks might come together, in fun or fury, remains radical. But racial boundaries have often divided the poor against each other thus helping, in the end, to sustain society’s racial and economic distinctions.” (Watkins 2005: 92-93). Quinn (2005) suggests that gangsta rap provides the, “subcultural pleasures of stylized youth rebellion, entrepreneurial moblility narratives, and masculinist identification. Much of the gangsta’s appeal stemmed from shared, youthful, masculine pleasures rather than the ‘othering’ of racial difference.”, and, “…the themes of youth rebellion, hard –rocking ghetto posuring, and freedom of expression provided much common ground (…rap reportly crossed over to whites…than metal did to Blacks) (Quinn 2005: 85-86).

Jeff Chang (2002) poses the question as to why we hear so little of protest music today, especially after 9/11. Hip hop culture is about social protesting and Black community cohesion, rap is about racial oppression and having a voice, gangsta rap is about claiming figurative territory, and the rights to possessions and playing out excessive fantasies of materialism, sexism and masculinity. Gangsta Rap was particularly vocal about speaking out against and using violent threats on institutions like policing, the state, however today we do not see much gangsta rap about social protest anymore, most of the gangsta rap includes black on black violence, stronger than ever sexism, and materialism. Chang (2002), starts with hip hop asking where the alternative voices against war have gone, especially in a post 9/11 world, and he states the words of rapper M-1 of the group Dead Prez,

“many musician commenting on war are just not being heard…hip hop has not yet produced much anti war music because a lot of ‘conscious rappers’ were never clear about their political positions in the first place, [rapper M-1 of Dead Prez] believes, and Sept 11 revealed their basic lack of depth.”, and,

“the subcateogory ‘conscious rappers’ are used to sell Levi’s geans and GAP clothing to college educated, disposable income spending hip- hop fans. In this logic, it’s not the rappers message that brings an audience together, it’s what there audience wears that brings the rappers together. There's a lifestyle that goes with not being aligned with the politics of U.S. imperialism. It's not just a one-day protest," he says, "We're in a new period. A lot of people are not seeing what has to be and are looking at it from just a red, white and blue angle."

This exactly points to the reasoning as to why the gangsta rap image is seen as only having market value from the very beginning and not a positive message like other rap forms in promoting peace, while other softer rap forms are now, following the suit of market value and not promoting positive protest messages that once have had. Gangsta rap has aligned itself with market forces, beginning with rapper Ice Cube and St. Ives in the early 90’s. Pease and Pringle (2001) explain Bell Hooks’s idea of the Black male as needing to “participate in the feminist struggle to end sexism” and she uses “imagery from slavery” to compare the relationship of the “slave/ master arrangement” of the “explotitive nature of black male rappers” and “white supremist capitalist patriarchy” in which the Black male is rewarded materially for the violence they portray and this, “can only lead to their destruction.” (Pease & Pringle 2001: 160-1).

Gangsta rap pushes more expensive products that appeal more so to a bougoise audience not a poorer Black audience and violence is a main part of the gangsta image, whether the rapper lives the life or not as a gangsta, the lyrics of gangsta rap and the movies both include gun violence and materialism in a first person narrative.

There are issues of censorship, as to why we do not see gangsta rap messages of murderous rebellion against institutions like the police and the powers of state control, as there once was. According to Sourcewatch, a project for the Center of Media and Democracy, Clear Channel Worldwide, program directors issued a ban on certain songs being played on radio stations, after 9/11, that where considered to be provoking to people’s sensitivities. One such song was by gangsta rapper, the Notorious B.I.G.’s song “Juicy” which includes the line, “Time To Get Paid/ Blow Up Like The World Trade.” (SourceWatch, 2006). The song was also edited to remove the words, ‘World Trade’ from possible future air plays, rereleases, professional samples, the voice sample of the song in Jay-Z’s song, “A Dream” from The Blueprint 2: The Gift And The Curse album. (Wikipedia, 2006).

Application Of The Feminist Perspective

It certainly is not an easy task figuring out a definitive solution for dealing with representations of hegemonic masculinities, for example, as seen in gangsta rap because it opens up to categories of race and class and not just gender. However, gangsta rap is not an inclusive style of music adapted by Black men, it has also been adopted by White rappers, like Eminem, who had shared a similar class background to many gangsta rappers of who had all felt the societial pressures of living in a lower poorer class. But the message that contemporary gangsta rap sends out, is that material wealth and hegemonic displays of masculinity, success and power can be achieved and this includes aggression, violence, sexism and homophobia. Robert Connell (2000) suggests that in relation to peer culture in its interplay with school, some, “images and interpretions…are racially based, such as…violent Black masculinity that is familiar in white racism- and has now been seized by young Black men (…rap music) as a source of power. Some of these representations are at odds with school agendas.” (161-2).

Judith Lorber does a better job at how we can look at issues of violence and hegemonic displays of masculinity, by turning to multicultural feminism, which, “argues that all [the] aspects of subordination have to be fought at the same time.”, and that, “members of subordinate groups [are] disadvantaged…by a mutltiple system of domination [and] multicultural feminism is…critical of feminist theories that contrast…men and women…because no one is just a woman or just a man.”(133-34). Lorber further presents her ideas from her work titled, ‘paradoxes of gender identity’ that help support her theory of degendering. In relation to her fourth paradox, she suggests that in order to be, “multicultural, you need to maintain distinct cultures.”, she mentions Urvashi Vaid’s idea of virtual equality that is created from mainstreaming, which is, “the erasure of differences without changes in the social structure that make it possible to live together.” (142).

Virtual equality is apparent in gangsta rap music, since both Black and White men have adopted the gangsta image and life, which is apparent in the case of both Eminem and 50 Cent, and both had equal footing in relation to a background class position of being poor and being from rough inner city neighborhoods. Lorber further summarizes Vaid, “But for the group, the marks of differentness may help their members identify one another as sources of help.” (142). The racial difference of both the rappers is not seen as a barrier nor acts as a (dividing) difference, since both grew up with the same feelings of class oppression but the racial difference is not forgotten, since Eminem makes a point to bring the attention upon himself as a white rapper in his music but also puts down his whiteness because he has chosen the image of a rapper gangster and is rebellious of dominant white patriarchal images (Watkins 2005: 105-6).

In a way this is how the racial boundaries become broken down to react out against dominant white patriarchal images but it is still harmful because both are adopting aggressive hegemonic masculine behaviors. In relation to the interplays of culture and gender, Lorber (2005) suggests that, “culture is one of the main supporters of the dominant gender ideology.”, and this is evident in the media respresentations of rappers in movies, music videos and music lyrics depictions of violent masculinity. (172).

Lorber (2005) suggests that degendering as an approach to ‘gender imagery’ would perhaps create more varied cultural representations (172-3). The images and ‘cool pose’ display of rappers then could be more varied and not just the aggressive hypermasculine gender displays that many males who engage in rap culture employ. In relation to individual gender displays, presentations of males who engage in rap culture or gangsta rap would perhaps show more varied displays, not just brand names and expressive gold chains. Gender as a social institution in relation to gender statuses of male gangsta rappers holds the notion that the Black male gender status is based on an opposition to White male gender idenity statues and acts as the initial fueling factor in creating the oppression felt by violently expressive Blacks gangsta rappers.

According to Lorber (2005), degendering would eliminate gender statues all together, but if we presume a degendering after which historical oppressive racial regimes have occurred, and which it has been presumed that gangsta rap was started as an expression of taking back for the Black male identity in violent ways, then degendering would cause not an opposition to the White male idenity statues but instead, all Whites in general. This can be presumed because, by breaking down gender, will only change the form of displays of hypermasculine expressions that were initially built around feelings of oppression. But this can be seen as positive for changing future displays of hypermasculine and violent expressions of anger in gangsta rap. This also shows how important a multicultural feminist perspective is seen as important for dealing with issues around gender, race and class. Gender as a social institution in relation to the division of labour of rap and rappers gives more voice and authority to the male gender in speaking about different issues to other male rappers and listeners. Women are largely absent from having a voice that is seen to carry the same merits as their male counterpart rappers. Women are only present when they are seen as sexual objects, ‘gold diggers’ who want to take the man’s money, without a voice or as a signifyier for a male rappers studdom (sexual virility). Women rappers often make issues of sexism and relationship problems, the focus of their songs, and do not largely focus on issues of opposition to other races and the use of violence to overcome oppression.

Most women rappers speak about common problems of absent fathers and cheating male lovers (Rose, 1994). By all this, it is clear to see that these acts create a rift between males in females who adopt dominant gender role stratification and even reinforce them through the repeated rap messages. This ties into gendered sexual scripts as well, where, “the normative patterns of sexual desire and sexual behavior, as prescribed for the different gender statues”, where male rappers are presented as having more sexual prerogatives, while female rappers or females in general are considered to be a “subordinate gender” (Lorber 2005: 172).

Degendering of both the divison of labour in rap and degendered sexual scripts can, allow women a place and a voice amongst men and allow for fluid sexual scripts but there will be still be, “dominance and exploitation” and these, “will not be eliminated if social class, racial ethnic, or other stratified statues permeate the relationship” (172). In relation to degendered kinship as a social institution, no one in a family would have more right or more recognized responsibility, over another in terms of gender. The messages of single fathers as apparent in gangsta rap, would possibily be seen as an issue not just by female rappers but other male rappers as well. In relation to gendered personalities, we could see more expressions beyond anger and violence as portrayed by gangsta rappers, more emotions and feelings, like fear, shame, sadness, and loneliness for example, in terms of a degendered approach, and these displays adopted by rappers as a public display will not be critized as weakness and therefor not being gender appropriate.

In relation to a degendered social control in rap, is that there would be no, “formal and informal approval” of males conforming to gendered behaviors, therefor no stigmatization if they don’t conform to or engage in sexist attitudes and violence and perhaps getting hit with a few shells (bullets) won’t require bravado attitudes. In relation to degendering gender ideologies, it would no longer seem natural for the performances of the Black masculine male rappers (as well as White rappers) to use women as signifiers of their dominant sexualities over women. It would also be presumed that women may not desire to act in ways that undermine their assertiveness and autonomy, especially if it would have no attached risks nor gendered rewards.

Conclusion

By examining gangsta rap lyrics and narratives we can see that this form of rap takes on less of a protest form of politics and instead includes more violent imagery and language of Black on Black crime, sexism, hypermasculine displays of anger, frustration and nilhilistic attitudes. Gangsta rap has becomed more commercialzed and seen as a well working model for the promotion of consumer goods right from its beginnings, and has developed into a site for pushing materialistic attitudes, the consumption of sex, and violence. Since the media has allowed gangsta rap has become more commodified, its messages have become even more accessible to larger audience, across race, class and culture.

The form of masculinity that gangsta rap portrays is hypermasculine and violent, and homophobic and this has been seen as a way for Black males to reclaim their masculinity, abid in an aggressive form. What makes this harmful is that other males from other cultures and races adopt these forms of masculinity, perhaps to various degrees when they engage in these portrayals, but in various violent and sexist ways, and thus reinforcing these forms of masculinity.

Gangsta rap exhibits only one form of hypermasculinity and does not portray different masculinities or allow for other expressions of masculinity. From the example of a 50 Cent movie billboard near a school in Los Angeles, having been requested to be removed, shows that educators as well as community representatives are concerned about the violence that the gangsta image portrays to students and youth. It is in educators and parents best interests to address issues around violent portrayals and to educate children on what these portrayals mean and the outcomes that these portrayals can entail.

Rap originally starting as a Black protest cultural movement and is important and meaningful to Black culture and Black communities and should not be seen as entirely a harmful nor distructive cultural form. Gangsta rap arose out of the rap culture movement by starting as a form of protest with more aggression and largely by male rappers and became increasingly more so violent and sexist.

What is a concern is the effects on males who adopt the forms of masculinity that gangsta rappers embody and talk about in the popular media. Educators and parents rather than avoid addressing these issues, should talk about how and in what way these images and behaviors are harmful to other forms of masculinity as well as forms of femininity. Educators could include works by non hegemonic, non White and non hegemonic White cultural forms and portrayals of masculinity to show the multiplicity of masculinity. For example in writing, english, literature, history, and music classes, provide and teach about different forms (ie: video, games, books) of work that include and deal with different class, race, culture and non hegemonic forms of masculinity in the material contents, by other male writers and thinkers.

Educators could perhaps bring in discussion of hegemony and hegemonic masculine ideals as a frame to guide discussions on works. Educators could assign projects getting students to research individually or in groups, on the life work of men who are pro-active in the violence against others, against other men and women. Educators could ask students to explore various media on topics other than war to find examples of violent, aggressive, negative, maladaptive behaviors in everyday life and compare it to popular culture media examples of these behaviors, to generate discussion of where the harm lies in these behaviors and the behaviors portrayals and welcome solutions to harmful behaviors.

Educators could also introduce these topics with open discussions in the classroom, with the permission of parents, or the presence of parents to the class discussion, asking what they believe to be are harmful or repeated images and portrayals of masculinity in popular culture or non popular culture and if they believe these portrayals to be necessary. Educators could also use the same discussion format and instead show two video portrayals of males, one performing hegemonic masculine behaviors and the other performing non hegemonic masculine behaviors, in order to generate discussion to the same discussion format questions as mentioned above.

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Check this out!

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This is my Soc4031 class (Mount Allison University) website for the Fall 2006 term. The launch of the website has recieved media attention of local radio stations in Sackville (CHMA), Amherst (CKDH) and Moncton (C103fm) as well as paper coverage and TV news coverage on NOv 30th, 2006. Each of the articles are written by individual students in my class, my write up is the one on "Gangsta Rap" written as part of a grade for a larger paper written for the same class, both totalling 50% of my grade. On both parts I have recieved an 'A' grade.

Book Review Compairisons: On Canadian Art Historical Texts- Paper prepared for FINA 3041. WINTER TERM 2006. Mount Allison University.

An Essay on Comparisons of Fine Art History Reviews Of Style Conventions and Text

Sabrina Hickey
FINA 3041:
Canadian Art Up To The 1960's
Dr. G. Kelly
WIN 2006
Mount Allison University,

When scanning over books on Canadian art history we find that the majority are written by males experts on art or male artists and that there are very few written by females. Joyce Millar has mentioned in a review on a women historian, Marie Tippett, that it wasn’t until the, “mid 1970’s Canadian women historians have started to focus on Canadian women artists…rediscovering an important part of Canada’s cultural hertitage.” (Millar 1995: 47). Books before this time books were written by men experts and or artists. One such book is the reference book for our Canadian art course is the second edition of, A Concise History of Canadian Art (1988), by Dennis Reid.

Dennis Reid’s second edition book is divided into 17 chapters and is 398 pages long. The book’s cover is the self portrait watercolor of painter, William Hind. Perhaps the choice for this particular work to grace the cover of Reid’s book is to bring attention to Hind’s work and his life, as a forgotten English immigrant Canadian artist, who has traveled from coast to coast. Reid’s 1988 edition’s 17 chapters follow a time line, from the first painters in Quebec from the old world up to the art after the 1960’s, influenced by technology and the changing attitudes on painting as art. This last chapter is omitted in the first edition of Reid’s for obvious reasons because the date of the first edition and much of the art after this dates edition could only be covered at a later date.

For purpose of a reference point I have chosen two common images found in each of Reid’s books, in order to compare the language, layout, content, and format, in order to make note of any differences. The two images I have chosen are, “Dharana” by the late Group of Seven’s own, Fred H. Varley and, “Young Canadian”, by Charles Comfort. Both paintings are dated 1932. I have chosen these two because these are the most common of the images reproduced in Canadian art history texts.(Harper 1966, 1977; Lord 1968; Reid 1973, 1988)

Although the Charles Comfort watercolor image is not in Reid’s 1973 (first) edition, it is in his second, also Reid does mention Charles Comfort in his first edition. Both images were not found in Marie Tippett’s and it was hard to find many of her images also in the other Canadian art histories. The other Canadian art history texts including these two artists and their paintings are, Painting In Canada: A History (both 1966 and 1977 editions) by, J.Russell Harper; The History Of Painting in Canada: Towards a People’s Art by, Barry Lord. Both images were not found in Marie Tippett’s: By A Lady: Celebrating Three Centuries of Art by Canadian Women, and it was hard to find many of her images also in the other Canadian art histories. Perhaps the wording of the title could be aluded to the fact that not only is the book covering just Canadian women artists but also that the women artists had perhaps not just been influenced by Canadian art in their own art: hence, “…three centuries of art by…”.

By looking at these four Canadian art histories and paying attention, to the two prior images selected, we can get a glimpse at the differences in content, language, layout and format used by their descriptions of these two painting and the artists.

First looking at the Dennis Reid texts, covering the biographical information on the life of Charles Comfort and his works, that in the second edition, Reid follows the same form but the text has been revamped to include more specifics in relation to Comfort’s life. For example in the first edition, Reid has written that Comfort, “was born in Edinburg…” but in the second edition this has been clarified, in that Comfort, “was born at Cramond, near Edinburg…” (Reid 1973: 181; Reid 1988:186). The rest of the text and language is the exact same, however in Reid’s first edition, he has not included the watercolor by Comfort, but has made reference to it as being one of Comfort’s, “most successful body or work…the portrait of Carl Shaefer, Young Canadian….” (1988: 186). Reid’s information on Fred H. Varley painting, “Dharana” is exactly the same in both editions.

Both of J.Russel Harper’s editions (1966 and 1977) follow text and language word for word in the chapter titled: “Nationalism and the ‘Group’”. Harper gives an biographical account in a chronological overview of Fred Varley’s work in the late 20’s and 30’s. In relation to the ‘Dharana’ painting, only a brief mentioning of a spiritual theme involved in the painting is noted in two lines in the text, and then quickly moves on to quickly to describing another work by Varley. Both editions contain the Dharana painting.

The only difference between these two editions, is that, in the early edition the images of the artists are included within the text but in the later: images are in their own collective section at the end of the book. The images included within the text in the earlier edition do not line up with the descriptions of them,and this makes it distracting, since one may have to flip back and forth. The language used (the exact same in both), is similar to Barry Lord’s in the way that it decribes much of the background of how men and women Canadian artists worked during the war years and the influences of war on their art. However Harper’s differs from Lord’s in that it is not offered in the same socialist viewpoint, since Lord decribes the socio-political and economic background of Canadian society throughout the course of his text. Barry Lord’s book contains images of both paintings within the text, as well as having them co-ordinating with the artist descriptions and historical information.

One thing that should be mentioned is that the earlier edition of Harper’s, the pages are horizontally wider, than the later (which is actually the same size as Reid’s 1988 edition-in book thickness and page size) and when trying to flip back and forth between the images and text, it can take longer to read. The later edition’s text allows for a better flow of reading, provides reference of images at the end of the text and allows for better handling and storage. Both editions of Harper’s book show the Charles Comfort watercolor, and also offer the same account of the ‘Young Canadian’ (Carl Schaefer portrait), who worked in the bombing crews in WWII. (Harper 1966: 336; Harper 1977: 288). Interesting to note is that, Harper’s 1966 edition is the only one to include a photography of the Group of Seven artists and this edition also includes color images, unlike the 1977 edition.

These two images are not included in Marie Tippett’s book, for the reason that they are done by men artists. Tippett’s book is unlike the others not just for the simple fact that she is the only woman writer, but in the form of language she uses. It is like Tippett is closely situated to the artists experiences and procedures and she offers much more personal exposure of the artists thoughts through the use of quotations of artists. In this way it seems more ethnographical in that there is less of a distancing effect of her from the women artists and therefore more like a dialogue between them, and further so, like a dialogue between both of them, and us the readers. (She also includes quotes of male artists as well.) Tippett leaves also leaves room for uncertainity of artists intentions in their art. (75) and she explains the stylistic work women painters and their realization that they needed to paint in certain ways, much like the Group of Seven (85). The layout of the book is different in the way that the book itself is much wider, with bigger margins and the text is more spaced out as well as the pictures from the text. The book’s print is much larger and the pictures are mainly in color. Considering all this, the book seems more inviting to read and enjoy.

By comparing all four other histories to Reid’s second edition (note I say 4 not the 5th - being Reid’s 1973 edition because the only real difference is the extra added chapter and the language is the same), I think it is a good course reader, because it is compact, and the images line up with corresponding text. I do believe that it could offer more on women artists and the influences on their art, rather than just covering art icons like Emily Carr. I like how Reid has covered art in the later time period up to the sixies, by divding the sections by the city art centers and regions, and each serious artist would greatly influence the surrounding areas from which they worked and also be advocates of schooling and museum arts of these areas. Dividing it this way allows for an easy access to moderately recent established art; perhaps because artists become more locationally bound and travel is more expensive. Reid’s book delivers exactly what it has set out to do, in that it is a ‘concise’ history of Canadian art history.


Sources
Harper, J.R. 1977. Painting in Canada: A History. University of Toronto Press: Toronto,
283-285.

-1966. Painting in Canada: A History. University of Toronto Press: Toronto,
178-180.

Millar, J. 1995. “Review: By A Lady, Celebrating Three Centuries of Art By Canadian
Women. Women’s Art Journal, Vol 16 (2); 47-9. JSTOR. Retrieved Oct. 4, 2006.

Reid, D. 1988. A Concise History of Canadian Painting. 2nd Edition. Oxford
Univerisity Press: Don Mills, Ontario.

-1973. A Concise History of Canadian Painting. Oxford University Press. Don Mills, Ontario.

Tippett, M. 1992. By A Lady: Celebrating Three Centuries of Art By Canadian Women.
Peguin Books Ltd: Toronto: Ontario.

Sociological Contemporary Theory Paper prepared for SOCI 3031. WINTER TERM 2006. Mount Allison University.

On This Paper I recieved a B Grade, it is not my best work and can use a little reworking. (Although there is the rumor some wish to believe that a B Grade at Mount Allison is an A in other Atlantic Canadian Universities.)

A Review of Dark Age Ahead by Jane Jacobs Infused With Modern Social Theories

Jacobs, Jane. 2005. Dark Age Ahead. Toronto: Vintage Canada. 224 p.

In this novel by Jane Jacobs it has been found to exemplify many modern theoretical examples throughout the text. There are 10 theories in total to be looked at and examined, and these include, The Chicago School, Functionalism, Conflict Theory, Neo- Marxism, Critical Theory, and the last four of these theories are considered to be Macro theories, while the Chicago School provides the historical context for these theories. Symbolic Interactionism, Ethnomethodology, which are considered to be Micro Theories and Feminist Theory, Modernity Theories, and Post Modernism are the newest, current theories in development.

The Chicago School was the most significant school in shaping sociology in modern theory in the United States. Albion Small plays a key role in this shaping even though his work had less of a modern influence in sociology; he had nonetheless played a key role in starting the tradition. He had started the sociology program, as well as the American Sociological Association and also a journal for the association. Two main and first hired proponents of the school were Ernest Burgess (activist) and Robert Park (journalist). Both had formulated an interest in Urban Studies and looked at theories in urban conflicts, combined with Comte’s positivism. Two other proponents of the school were, Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead. Cooley had emphasized the concepts still around, called the, ‘looking – glass self’ and ‘primary groups’ and he had also used the sympathetic introspection method in analyzing consciousness. What became more important over this method however was Mead’s work in symbolic Interactionism because his work was more scientific than Cooley’s.

They had developed a theory of Urban Ecology, which was based on a social Darwinian model and combined conflict, assimilation, accommodation and survival of the fittest theory using animal metaphors. However this theory no longer exists as a used model but the ethnographic methodology they had used in looking at profiles of neighborhoods in cities and how they change as well as character types still does. It is a qualitative sociology, like through the use of content analysis, that also includes ‘ephemeral’ information gathering or positivistic recordings, that still holds some validity. The political approach can be described as combining progressive conservative outlooks with lassez- faire attitudes towards findings.

A Chicago School example can be found on page 42 (para 2), and it is premised on the focus of American communities being changed by industry, causing the lives of individuals and families to change after WWII until recently. Changes of technological advancements of vehicles had pushed for the developments of highways and roads systems that had changed and destroyed communities. Jacob’s suggests that if there were anytime for a community to be destroyed, then this “was an especially fortunate time for this disaster.” (42). She presumes this because it has coincided with the influx and out flux of migrations of people in America and so the need for assimilation in cities and existing communities and also to, “cushion so many unprecedented circumstances, ….” (42), of people and families.

This example fits together with Cooley’s idea of primary groups as being crucial and, “[Playing] a key role in linking the individual to the larger society.” (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 58). Through these groups individuals grow socially. Cooley follows the idea of Chicago School in that; he focused on how individuals related to their external realities by examining them in such a way, by ‘placing one self in their shoes’ (59).

The second macro theory is Functionalism is based on the premise that institutions and structures of society are important but the consequences of these are not important in terms of what their functions mean for other structures in society. (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 93). The institutions in society hold the key in control and manipulation and effects how an entire society functions.

Functionalism has an elitist favoritism because it has a capitalistically positive viewpoint. From a functionalist point of view, there may give certain jobs a foreseen importance over other jobs, like a doctor’s position is seen as more highly important to the survival of society and so presumed to be not very enjoyable and so are given the greatest awards, like higher incomes or attached social prestige as would be compared to a maintenance staff worker in a hospital (94). The ones who fair worse in light of this theory are minority groups, whether they are visible or not, so in a way it can foster and justify social inequalities. Also in justifying social inequalities, it then can also be seen as contributing to those who lack what the elites have basically just didn’t do the work to get

to that level and so it puts responsibility on the individual. Also tied to this idea is that Functionalism supports deviance as serving a purpose by providing an example of what

not to do in order to reinforce norms of proper legal and healthy behaviors for society and its members.

One example from the book that includes an attitude resembling a functionalist perspective is the very first one from chapter six regarding subverting self policy. Jacobs describes the difference between self regulation and self policing. The author describes the difference between the two, where, “self –regulation refers to mainly…the internal affairs of professional groups.” (126), and self – policing is much the same except it involves getting rid of possible fraud or outright crimes. So self regulation can be seen as more of a functional practice that professional and professional organizations undertake. Since it includes the element of risk in that there is no measures taken to get rid of possible fraud. The author describes in terms architect’s self regulation practices where they shave fees for competitive measures and that, “In many other commercial activities, mutually agreed upon fees among competitors for clients would be deemed illegal collusion in restraint of trade.” (126). Also the fact that competitiveness, relating back to the example we were given on the Olympics, this is seen as a safe and civilized function instead of, in the case of the Olympics – war , and ‘fee shaving’ in architecture practices so the actual skill of the professionals can be competition instead of the fee. (126). In the Olympics there is a level playing field for all competitors and as well for architects in this example. Architects have the professional authority to do so and they have the responsibility to assure, “public safety and public amenity…” (126). This also implies that they have the authority to ensure the safety for society in designing safe structures and this authority has also allowed them to have the opportunity to undertake self regulation rather than self policy.

The third macro theory is a counter argument to functionalism – Conflict Theory. It was developed in direct opposition, as a rebuttal to functionalism. The major proponent of Conflict Theory is Ralf Dahrendorf, who believes that, “every society at every point is subjected to change.” (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 120), and that the heart of much stress and problems they see in society is due to coercion by an authority figure trying to gain control and power over those less socially or financially well off.

Conflict Theory fills in the gaps that functionalism does not pull together and it examines a powerful truism; who has the power to determine why things work they way they end up working. Conflict is recognized as a reality and that it should be noted and change is essential. This theory is very progressive and sees a need for direct change. The things they focus attention on are fixed power struggles, corrupted self interest in power, authority abused, and, “ideal fixation of capitalist consumption” (Steuter 2006: pers comm). Fixed power struggles are not good if people behave in ways that only bring harm or insult to those beneath the power holders, this is refered to as ‘iron clad authority’ which focuses mainly on power, authority and politics.

An example of Conflict Theory is on page 171-2, where the author is explaining how Japan managed to keep its culture and cultural practices regardless of Western infusion and assimilating Western ways and had even went through major conflicts

ensued on the country, like for example, bombings, and foreign military occupation. So in a way Japan managed to keep the power over their culture from being lost due to many disruptions while at the same time not drawing any comtempt or envy from the West.

A fourth macro theory is Neo Marxism and this theory holds the notion that the role of power and functionalism aspects were seen to be underdeveloped in the old Marxism theory. There is a struggle by European theorist’s to understand why Marx’s idea and theory of the breakdown of capitalism as being inevitable had never come true. Around the 1960’s and 70’s Neo Marxism was emerging and the focus was on oppression issues, during this time which were seen of central importance. Today this theory is refered to as the ‘political economy’and this is the key to understanding the social system and it refers back to the core principles of the base and superstructure as well as historical materialism. The Economy is the base of this superstructure. The debates going on in Neo – Marxism as to what level of influence of the economy today, for example a deterministic Marxist would say the economy totally directs and shapes and a non determinist would say the opposite; that the superstructures can actually affect the economy. Historical Marxism looks at how the economic base has affected society’s institutions over time.

There was a changing view of what Marx seen as a competitive capitalism into a monopoly capitalism, this is where there are only a few capitalist controlling a certain sector of the economy and there is less price competition because since only a few companies actually own or control a market. So it’s like companies owned by one company for example. Instead of the idea of about lowered prices to get the best competition between more firms, it’s more about sales competitions between a few. Competition for sales relies on promotional methods, like the making of ads and advertising a product. Managers are considered to be in the most power in monopoly capital and are viewed this way because of their role in trying to generate long term profits for the organization, on their own. Out of this type of capitalism the notion of credit was established.

Monopoly capitalism is exemplified in Jacob’s book on page 134, where she is explaining how companies (auditors) have the power to ensue demands on public accountants and are largely responsible for corruption. An example given is Arthur Anderson (Enron’s Auditor) who lost his firm but parts of the firm are still working in Europe and Amerca. (134). In order to protect auditors’ repuations now, any illegal activities carried out by “underlings” are not told to superiors in order to protect these superiors. (135). However former presidents and the current US president has used this tactic to try to get away with past scandals, some successful, other not so much. (135). In Ritzer & Goodman (2004) mentions Micheal Burawoy’s idea why workers work so hard as not being due to coercion and it is more about consent. Also that workers imploy ‘games’ or, “informal practices they develop” and these have been seen to be, “social mechanisms that workers develop to oppose management” and these games, “actually support [management]” (153). Ritzer and Goodman’s example can be applied to the Jacob’s example in that in fact the illegal activites not told to the superiors actually support the superiors and protect them, even though by the rules they are not supposed to allow them or like them, so that is why they remain privately conducted by the “underlings” (135).

The fifth modern macro social theory is Critical Theory, which is actually another Neo – Marxist Theory taken up by the Germans who did not like the economic determinism of Marxist theory and so wanted to focus more on cultural social life aspects and not just the economy as central. They also criticize the ‘culture industry’ idea and that this just merely pacifies and it is false. So this leads to a false conciousness in society and just takes credibility away from individuals’ social agency and this is the key to social revolution. Critical Theorists were trying to move away from the tradtions of the Frankfurt School and be more open minded to truisms. These theorists focused on the Super structure (institutions) rather than the base (economy) and the leading proponets were, Adorno, Horkhiem and Mortmier.

They pose the question, as to why we have not yet had a socialist revolution. They see capitalist values as really supporting capitalistic gains and keeps poor people poor and this gives authority to richer people and this system of reinforcing capitalism is so pervasive that it’s hard to pinpoint. Included with this is the idea that rich people deserve to be rich because of the false conciousness and credibility being taken away from certain individuals due to a loss in agency and resources. Also that the culture industry promotes the ideals of the capitalist system and presents the idea the personal gain as an option or they can entertain their power is rewarded to those who have more money to take part in consumption.

There is another theme of ideology and hegemony. The term ‘hegemony’ is described as, “…cultural leadership exercised by the ruling class. [Gramsci] contrasts hegemony to coercion…” (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 136). Critical theorists like Antonio Gramsci would look at issues of why certain groups of people who did not benefit would even bother to take part in supporting economic policies. They determined that it was an issue of consent and not coercion, that in fact there is no force behind it but that people actually give consent and the concept they developed was the manufacturing of consent. This manufacturing arises from the process of marginalized ideas and casues one to consent since no other options are available, perhaps due to a tightly controlled superstructure and so that there may be other options but they are not realized. Along with this is the issue of hegemony and the pushed agendas and ideas by those who have authority to do so, and alternative solutions or ideas are marginalized and so power is taken away from them in pushing an idea to adopt a majority. An example would be, religion and science paradymns, and these paradymns change due to the dominant view on these paradymns at certain times, but since we live in a capitalistic world, science has more agenda and is seen as a benefit to capitalism in helping promote its ideals, so a science paradymn would be a better model to follow. Also Critical theory is anti positivistic in that the theory looks at a general sense of authority and did not like the rationalization of things. Also, “critical theorists prefer to focus on human activity [and]…ways …activity affects larger social structures….the crtical theorists would not accept the idea that the general laws of science can be applied without question to human action.” (Ritzer & Goodman 2004:137).

An example of Critical Theory from Jacob’s book can be found on page, 99 (para 3-4), where she describes how science has not made much progress in relation to looking at whole systems, and this can be clearly seen in the medical procedures of patients in hospitals. This example goes along with the anti-positivism ideal and the fact that science in the authoritative form today includes rationalization of findings and uses rational procedures. An example of this can also be seen in how a doctor addresses patient health problems, where the doctor visitation usually only addresses one problem at a time and other problems require repeated vistiations. Jacob’s contends that, “it tends to become arrested in the stage of singling out isolated bits, with little grasp of how these interact with other bits of intergrated systems.” (99), in biology and the medical system. Holistic science, considered to be a fringe science would consider looking at the whole picture of the intergrated systems, which medical science does not. Jacob’s further addresses influences on culture from the costs of a culture holding up science that could fail or have a science go against a cultures best interests and wellbeing. For example she asks, “How will …a culture and its people deal with becoming incompetent and backwards in science based technology?” (100).

This example presents the anti-postivism critique and how technology is used in a backwards way because the knowledge controls the way technology is used, and in this sense then technology controls a doctors or scientists freedom as well. Jacob’s example fits in with the idea that we are in a society that upholds the biological and medical view of science and this is the dominant view that has authority over alternative ways that have not been appropriated by capitalism to the degree that the dominant system is today and so do not have capitalist values attached to them and also it goes with the idea that whats good for business is good for everyone.

One of the first Micro Theories that we have covered in class is the Symbolic Interactionism Theory. One of the major figures in this theory is Herbert Mead, and his work is concerning his brand of Symbolic Interactionism combining roots of philosophy of pragmantism and psychological behaviorism. (Ritzer and Goodman 2004: 201). Mead’s book Mind, Self and Society is the most important piece of work for this theory. Other theorist in this tradtion is Herbert Blumer who had coined the name of this theory in 1937.

The main principle in this theory is that people are symbol users and what separates us from animals is that we use language to read more complex forms of communication than animals would use which are symbols. Symbols can be body language, speech and use of language, materials and objects in the environment used as representations and markers as well as interpreting the world and acting in ways that are fitting. In this we can try to get at an understanding of the ‘social actor’ and how they would intereact with their interpretation of the world. This is also affected by the context

and this includes aspects like, personal adoption of norms, and concensus view, but this would depend on whether a theorist was adopting a nominalist or a realist position. A realist would assume that an individual acts accordingly to the consensus and are not free agents in their thoughts and behaviors. A nominalist, like Mead would assume a person is a free agent. This is connected to Meads notion of self role play where individuals try on a role and this is seen as important to the development of the self. Mead feels that, “In order to have selves, individuals must be able to get ‘outside thmeselves’ so that they can evaluate themselves, so they become objects to themselves….[and] do so only indirectly by [being put] in the position of others and viewing themselves from that standpoint….[this can be ] an individual or …a social group…” (Ritzer and Goodman 2004: 212). This is also connected to Charles Horton Cooley’s idea of the ‘looking glass self” where the way you are treated by others is impotant to your own self indentity.

Another proponent of Symbolic Interactionism is Erning Goffman, who looked at the way we can examine different interaction between actors and found that it was determined by roles, presentations of roles, and self reflexive knowledge. Presentation of self is determined by environments, wether a person is alone or with others (ie: back or front stages respectively) and this is included in his theory of the notion of Dramaturgy.

An example of Symbolic Interactionism can be found on page 136 of Jacob’s book where she explains how professionals like, spindoctors, help those in power (politicians for example), “to disconnect reality [and] construct new reality.” (Jacob 2005: 136). This can be much like the technique that social actors undertake under the confines of what Goffman has described as being called, ‘role distance ’, where actors to some, “degree…separate themselves from the role they are in.” (Ritzer &Goodman 2006: 226).

This example I think best fits with Goffman idea of role distance in the way that spin doctors construct new realities as a way to distance from the actual realities they have become disconnected from, so in this way they are separting themselves from the role they play in deconstructing realities.

A second theory within the micro (and macro) classification is Ethnomethodology, which holds that people use “methods” daily in order to accomplish everyday life. In this sense people are seen as pragmatic and use “practical reasoning” to carry out daily life. The founder was Harold Garfinkle and he looked at “social facts” much like Durkhiem had, but Ethnomethodology looks at social facts as, “a product of members’ methodological activities.” Acounts are the methods used by people to make sense of their world. (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 241).

The first principle is the ‘interaction nature of society’ which is the interaction between two persons and how they make sense of this interaction and then how this interacts with norms, values and society. The second principle is how human use sense making to make sense of situations. Human use what makes sense and compare information to what they know to make sense and understand situations and things. The third principle is that individuals construct meaning though interaction, so in other words, they break down what happens in interaction, and this is the idea of accounts, which is ‘how’ one exaplins what is happening. Accounts are the way people explain things according to their understanding in order to make sense of things. The fourth principle is concerning the role of language and how it is structured in constructing meaning. Ethnomethodologists look at the structure of language in conversational analysis and this includes turn taking, pauses, tones, facial expressions, body language, and indexicality, which is the ‘back stories’ to what is going on in relation to what they are talking about. Also they may study gender differences in conversations and body language differences between men and women, men and men, and women and women.

An example of Ethnomethodology from Jacob’s book is on page 120, where the author is explaining her talk with Mr. Paul Martin on yield shares from taxation forms and she suggests that when she commented to Mr. Martin about the possibility of revenue sharing he then suggested that it would not be allowed by the constitution. Jacobs then sugeested to Martin that actually there is no information from the constitution that says this is not allowed, and Jacobs comments on his facial expression upon thereafter what she had said, “When I saw a shadow pass over his expressive and attentive face, I assumed he was glumly contemplating tax increases. I remarked that ….possibly it was a mistake to mention this, although he…surely soon have looked at this side…for himself.” (120).

This example depicts how in her discourse with Mr. Martin, Jacobs noticed his facial expressions and tried to draw some reference as to what he was thinking and this relates to indexicality, where performance evaluation was affected in the way that each response was a surprise to the other and that their, “vantage points, and therefor [their] views, were different.” (Jacobs 2005: 120) and that this discourse does back and forth and the author mentions that they take turns, cheering and placating and restoring harmony in the discourse after each have opposing views with one another. Jacobs was adopting an analytical approach rather than leveling approach and both were taking the verbal approach seriously and Jacobs did not take anything personally.

A theory placed under current developments that we covered in class was the Feminist Theory, which is a theory that is interdicplinary and includes thinkers from other disciplines. It is woman centered in three ways: in that the experiences of women in society is important, also woman are the central subjects in the investigation approach, and it is critical and activist on behalf of women. It reexamines all the macro and micro theories through the guise of the women’s experience in them and through all the gender specific expereiecnes within each. Thoughout time there have emerged different ‘waves’ or periods of feminism that comes into play in each of the theories. The first one is, ‘first wave’ feminism, which was the core political movement concerning women and it focused on the core inequalities with men, that woman at the turn of the 21^st Century had faced. The ‘second wave’ feminism happened around the 1960’s and focused on inequalties between women and men. During this time there was more of a radical feminism taking place and it was more about social revolution and patriarchy was attacked as being seen as the root of all forms of oppression. The ‘third wave’ feminism is the current one now today, started around 10 years ago and is considered less of a time period and more of a concept and it looks at pop culture and there is more inclusiveness of men in this wave. (Steuter 2006: pers comm).

Feminist theories differ in their views about where gender inequality began, how it is maintained and how it can be changed. The other two levels of feminism are socialist and liberal feminism. Socialist focuses on the oppression of both patriarchy and capitalism and it combines, “Marxist class analysis and feminist social protest” (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 325, para 2). Liberal feminism is the major expression of gender inequality and that woman can attain equality with men through reworking the already existing system structures.

An example of Feminist Theory in Jacob’s book is on page 219 in the notes section, where the author is explaining some essays written by Norman Wirzba and that his works talking about agrarian life and how what had replaced it in our society. Jacob’s point of view is included in this as she feels that even agrarian life was not all that good for women’ s equality and Jacob’s poses the question asked by other thinkers, if, “women were always denigrated by men as second – class members of the human race: more unrecoverable knowledge.” (169).

This example shows Feminist Theory Jacobs is admitting, although the editor does not touch on this, that women even during Agrarian times were supposedly not that equal and there is also the notion that much knowledge as to whether or not we know or can find out whether women were equal or not is hard to pin down since feminist sociology would oppose the idea of a ‘God’s Eye View of Knowledge’ because we cannot know the full view because all have different filtered perspectives and so knowledge is partial. The aspect of knowledge that gets emphasized is that knowledge is shaped by time, culture, and people. Also in todays world knowledge is shaped by power relations and this determines what information gets out there for access to all. The knowledge as to whether or not women were deemed as second class in Agrarian culture, like they are in todays culture is knowledge that is even hard to find to begin with since of the known idea that history is written by the victors idea and so to even find this cultural base as an argument for helping women’s postiton in oppression forces is not possible since the evidence to support is ambigious and covered up or lost along the way and possibly replaced by knowledge that supports new power structures today.

A second lot of theories, which are considered to be current development theories, are Modernist Theories. Although all theories that we have covered so far can be considered to be modernist theories since they developed in a time of modernity, the modernist theory we have looked at covers contemporary modern theories. Theories of Modernity would hold that Institutions and structures in society have elements of positivism, which incapsulates faith in science, quest for truth and the rationalization of things. There are also elements of form with bureaucracy and a notion of order being apparent as well as specific boxed divisons of classification and fixed time and space notions. Three other themes included are, Unity, Grand Narratives and Captialism. Unity would include a sense of homogeneity and commonality in things. Grand Narratives include faith in progress and are highly optimistic generic mother type discourses that suggest that we are progressing together as a society and it makes use of common themes to represent a notion or idea to society. Anthony Giddens is one of the most prominent contributors to modern theory and he developed his own perspective called structuration theory. (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 414). Also there are three aspects of this theory that contribute and add to Modernity and these are, “distanciation, disembedding, and reflexivity.” (416). This theory is the attempt to reconcile or bring together dictonomies in theory, like agency versus structure and micro and macro orientations/ perspectives and it treats each in a balanced way, not focusing on one or the other.

Within Modernity Theory, theory would look at institutions for example, using the five elements mentioned earlier: Positivism, Form, Unity, Grand Narratives and Capitalist structures. By looking at the institution of MacDonald’s as a modernist institution we can examine the each of these elements to be exhibited in all aspects of this institution as following a modernist discourse. The fact that MacDonald’s is an important model for modernism being alive, according to Ritzer, “…the degree to which it is serving as a model for much of the rest of society, indicate that we continue to live in a modern world.”, and this has also been applied to the notion of credit as being “MacDonalized” as well and so has changed the means of consumption, which is an idea derived from Marx’s idea of ‘means of production’. This ‘means of consumption’ idea is divided as being different in terms of class consumption differences and, “[a]ll the new means of consumption are modern in the sense that they are largely new innovations….have transformed consumption…are having an even more profound effect on consumption.” (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 426). This is just one aspect of Modern Theory that applies to my example found in Jane Jacob’s novella.

The example of Modernist Thought can be found on page 96 of Jacob’s book. She is explaining how various financial institution heads and economists have held a modernist view point in saying that they have felt that demands for products like houses and cars need to be, “consumer led” and that this happens when there are more jobs available and taken up and this exhibits the “multiplier effect” where people really just buy more of everything on the market but really cannot be explained as people having more money in the case mentioned. When economists look at this trends they tend to explain it as a, “consumer led expansion” even though possibly being aware it may not be. (96).

This example is connected to the idea of a need to rationalize for findings of what the economists were seeing by comparing outrageous results of jobs popping up due to consumerism leading the way in these developments, and this also reflects the quest for uncertainity idea. This issue may not even be a class issue in terms of the example used as being a “luxury means of consumption” (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 425), since, “consumers can enrich themselves by borrowing on inflated house values…” (Jacob 2005: 97). This also includes elements of Capitalist enterprise in that it compares the US and Canadian job markets and economies when she discusses the industrial expansion happening in Canada, which describes Canada’s different economic situation from the US better economic situation.

The third and last of the current developments in Contemporary Theory is Post Modernism Theory. There is a shift from sociological to ‘social’ theories and which are more multidisciplinary. Post Moderinism combines elements of humanism and structuralism. The idea of ‘linguistic turn’ refers to the idea that there was a newly seen angle in language where language was seen as a metaphor of situations and was highly influenced on the lives of people. So this included signs, like gestures, facial expressions, body language literary texts, etc, along with language and also other social behaviors as well. (Ritzer &Goodman 2004: 451). All these ideas came from the Structuralist period, and after this was the post structural period where, Jacques Derrida plays an important role in deconstructing language and social institutions and had found that institutions are really only about writing and so cannot constrain people. He also reduced language to writing and so when he deconstructed both, he found that since there are different meanings since there are different contexts. Also he had found it impossible to see how scientists could find the, “underlying laws of language”, since he sees it as subversive. (Ritzer & Goodman 2004: 453; Steuter 2006: pers comm.). Another thinker within post structuralism is Michael Foucault, who also emphasized differences between post structuralism and structuralism which was to him was more than about linguistics and language. He gave us the concept of discourse and he feels that the ‘Grand Narratives’ of Modern Theory are merely just another form of punishment because he challenges univeralism and authority and he believed that punishment had become more rationalized. This is based on his view that there was a strong link between knowledge and power and it also connects ot his idea of the panopticon.

By using the same five elements/ guidelines used for modernism theories for post modernism social theories we can see that they are opposed to modern theory in that they do not believe in structure of form, they are against positivism, and they oppose Grand narratives, they describe relative power positions and favor difference or heterogeity. They also would claim to be post capitalist in that they would examine reproductive technologies and look at multiethnic communities. So in looking at little narratives they would have to include other points of view, meaning ethinic groups and for example, by rejecting positivism, they would be open to different forms of knowledge generated by anti positivist ways.

An example of Post Modernist theory in Jacob’s book can be found on page 143, where the author is explaining how architectural fashions, which were not functional for people who could not afford to live in large spaces, had driven people from their homes because of the government ensuing slum clearance in order to rebuild with a new design. Even when the buildings were rebuilt they did not seem to even meet the needs of the tenants and many had left and it had also destroyed the community.

The author is explaining the Pruitt – Igoe housing project and that this had, “[become] a spectacular symbol of slum – clearance failures.” (Jacob 2005: 144). Ritzer and Goodman suggest that, “[t]he destruction of Pruitt- Igoe is a reflection of differences between modernists and post modernists over whether it is possible to find rational solutions to societies problems.” (469). This is an example of postmodernism looked at as starting through cultural products changing and having a different outcome of effects. Once a certain artifact or lots of buildings, for example is destroyed then whatever rationalized means used to replace it cannot restore the same conditions (a new structure design replacing the old), much like in the case of Pruitt – Igoe where the new designs could not meet the needs of the individuals living in them.